Phase 4

Age of Exploration and Expansion

   If indeed Carthage was crippled, she was not immobile.  Focus shifted on expansion of territory in Africa and Sardinia and the exploration of Africa and Europe for new markets.  The grandsons of Mago I, Hannibal, and Hasdrubal, Sappho (sons of Hasdrabal) together with Hanno, Gisco, and Himilco (sons of Hamilcar) played prominent parts in these activities.  However, specific details of their roles are lacking. By 450 BCE, Carthage had stopped paying tribute to the Libyans and a second major expansion into the Tunisian world took place. Lines of forts were built in Sardinia, securing Carthaginian control over the island coastline.

Tharros Sardinia

  The next king in line was Hanno II 480-440 BCE. Son of Hamilcar is thought to be the famous Hanno the Navigator who was a Carthaginian explorer of the fifth century BCE, best known for his naval exploration of the western coast of Africa. The only sources of his voyages are Greek geographical sea voyage notations.  His expedition  took place sometime between 460-425 BCE,

  Carthage dispatched Hanno at the head of a fleet of 60 ships to explore and colonize the northwestern coast of Africa. He sailed through the straits of Gibraltar, founded or repopulated seven colonies along the African coast of what is now Morocco, and explored significantly farther along the Atlantic coast of the continent. Hanno encountered various indigenous peoples on his journey and met with a variety of welcomes.

A Carthaginian Trireme

  At the terminus of Hanno's voyage, the explorer found an island heavily populated with by what was described as hirsute and savage people. Attempts to capture the males failed, but three of the females were taken. These were so ferocious that they had to be killed, and their skins preserved for transport home to Carthage. The skins were deposited in the Temple of Tanit on Hanno’s return and, according to Pliny the Elder. The interpreters traveling with Hanno called the people gorillae, and when European explorers first encountered gorillas in the 19th century, they gave this name to the apes they encountered on the assumption that they were the “people” Hanno described.

Pliny the Elder and Arrain, the latter mentioning it at the end of his Anabasis of Alexander VIII (Indica) goes thus, in his account:

  “Moreover, Hanno the Libyan started out from Carthage and passed the Pillars of Heracles and sailed into the outer Ocean, with Libya on his port side, and he sailed on towards the east, five-and-thirty days all told. But when at last he turned southward, he fell in with every sort of difficulty, want of water, blazing heat, and fiery streams running into the sea.”

Brian H. Warrington in his Book "Carthage" suggests,

  "This report was the object of criticism by some ancient writers, including the Pliny the Elder, and in modern times a whole literature of scholarship has grown up around it. The account is incoherent and at times certainly incorrect, and attempts to identify the various places mentioned based on the sailing directions and distances almost all fail. Some scholars resort to textual emendations, justified in some cases; but it is probable that what we have before us is a report deliberately edited so that the competitors of Carthage could not identify the places. From everything, we know about Carthaginian practice- their resolute determination to keep all knowledge of and access to the western markets from the Greeks. It is incredible that they would have allowed the publication of an accurate description of the voyage for all to read. What we have is an official version of the real report made by Hanno that conceals or falsifies vital information while at the same time gratifying the pride of the Carthaginians in their achievements. The very purpose of the voyage, the consolidation of the route to the gold market, is not even mentioned."  Therefore, it was the valuable yellow metal that they were after and wanted no one to know about.  We know nothing else about Hanno II’s rule.

Hanno’s Probable Route

  Himilco I (of Sicily) 460-410 BCE ruled after Hanno II.  Himilco I (Phoenician Chimilkât) was another Carthaginian navigator and explorer. He lived during the height of Carthaginian power in the 5th century BCE. His expedition took place in about 450 BC. Himilco, Carthaginian explorer, the first Mediterranean sailor known to have reached the northwestern shores of Europe wrote a story about his adventures, which is now lost. Two Roman authors quote it, however, and we are therefore able to reconstruct some of his travels. The name Himilco is Latin; it renders his Phoenician name Chimilkât, which means 'my brother is milkât' -but it is unclear to us what a milkât is.   The oldest reference to Himilco's voyage is a brief mention in Natural History (2.169a) by the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder. Himilco was quoted three times by Rufus Festus Avienus, who wrote Ora Maritima, a poetical account of the geography in the 4th century AD.  We know next to nothing of Himilco himself.  Himilco sailed north along the Atlantic coast of present-day Spain, Portugal, England, and France. He reached northwestern France, the territory of the Oestrimini tribe living in Portugal probably to trade for tin to be used for making bronze and for other precious metals, the voyages of the Carthaginian Himilco takes note of the islands of Albion (the White Cliffs of Dover) and Ierne (may refer to Ireland). 

The White Cliffs of Dover

  Avienus asserts that the outward journey to the Oestriminis took the Carthaginians four months. Himilco described his journeys as quite harrowing, repeatedly reporting sea monsters and live seaweed, likely in order to deter Greek rivals from competing on their new trade routes. Carthaginian accounts of sea monsters became one source of the myths made to discourage others from sailing in the Atlantic.  

Probable Route of Himilco

  Hannibal I (nickname Mago) was a grandson of Hamilcar Mago (Mago I).  He predates the more famous Carthaginian general Hannibal by about 200 years. By 410 BCE, Carthage had conquered much of modern day Tunisia, strengthened and founded new colonies in North Africa, and had sponsored Mago Barca's journey across the Sahara Desert. Although, in that year, the Iberian colonies seceded — cutting off Carthage's major supply of silver and copper. Hannibal 1 (Mago) ruled from 440-406 BCE.  He was shofet (judge) of Carthage in 410 BCE and in 409 BCE commanded a Carthaginian army sent to Sicily in response to a request from the city of Segesta.

Greek Temple in Segesta

  Segesta was one the major cities of the Elymias people an indigenous people of Sicily.  The other major cities of the Elymias were Eryx and Intello. The city was located on the northeastern tip of Sicily.  The following battle caused the Second Sicilian War.  Hannibal I (Mago) took a small force to Segesta.  In the Battle of Selinus, he successfully took the Greek city of Selinus and then Himera before Syracuse could intervene effectively. In the process of this conquest, it is believed that he killed some 3,000 prisoners of war, reportedly as revenge for the defeat his grandfather suffered in the Battle of Himera 70 years before. The city of Himera was destroyed as well. He did not attack Syracuse or Akragas, but departed for Africa with the spoils of war, and a three-year lull fell in Sicily. 

Battle of Himera 409 BCE

  In 406 BCE, Hannibal I (Mago) died in a plague that broke out during the siege of Agrigento.  Himilco II 406-396 BCE became the next king in line.  Himilco II was also a member of the Magonid Dynasty, a Carthaginian family of hereditary generals, and had command over the Carthaginian forces between 406 and 397 BCE. He is mainly known for his war in Sicily against Dionysius I of Syracuse. The Magonid Family of Carthage played a central role between 550 – 340 BCE in the political and military affairs of the Carthaginian Empire. Himilco II came to prominence after being selected deputy of his cousin Hannibal I (Mago) in 406 BCE for the Carthaginian expedition to Sicily.  Nothing is known about the early life of Himilco II.  The power of the position of “King” was diminished after the defeat of his grandfather Hamilcar Mago at Himera in 480 BCE.  

  With the rise of the council Hundred and Four came the power to try to crucify Carthaginian commanders who failed. The Magonid family continued to be active in Carthaginian foreign affairs while Himilco II was alive.  Himilco II’s father was probably Hanno the Navigator.  His family also was active in expanding the Carthaginian domain in Africa and Sardinia and ending the payment of tribute to the Libyans.

  In retaliation, the Greeks raided Punic-Sicilian possessions in Sicily in 406 BCE.  Hannibal Gisco was asked by the Carthaginian Senate to command the Carthaginian expedition to Sicily in 406 BCE to punish Hermocrates for raiding Carthaginian possessions around Motya and Panormus, possibly with the intention of subjugating all of Sicily. Hannibal initially refused pleading old age but accepted when the Carthaginian Senate elected Himilco II as his deputy (cf. Diodorus Siculus).  Hannibal Gisco led 60,000 soldiers and 1000 transports, escorted by 120 triremes to Sicily, where Akragas and Syracuse had gathered soldiers from Sicily and Italy to oppose the Carthaginians. 

Cut Away of a Trireme (which had three sets of oars -hence the prefix Tri-)

  Hannibal laid siege to Akragas, the wealthiest city in Sicily in the spring of 406 BCE by “straddling” the city with two camps, while the Carthaginian fleet was based at Motya. The main Carthaginian army was in the western camp while the eastern one housed the Iberian and Campanian mercenaries. Akragas could field 10,000 hoplites (Hoplites were citizen-soldiers of Ancient Greek city-states who were primarily armed with spears and shields) and some cavalry and had 1,500 crack mercenaries under the Spartan Dexippus in the city.  When the initial Carthaginian assault on the city gate nearest to the main Carthaginian camp with two siege towers failed, Hannibal Gisco began to build siege ramps to assault the city from several directions. However, a plague swept through the Carthaginian army and Hannibal Gisco perished with many of his soldiers. Himilco II (Diodorus, XIV, p41) was elected as the commander (he was his deputy anyway) of the Carthaginian force. The Carthaginians had demolished tombs to get materials for the siege ramps, and Punic soldiers believed that divine anger had caused the plague.

  Himilco II’s first challenge was to tackle the plague. Left unchecked, the plague would have decimated the Carthaginians, and if Himilco II had retreated, the Greeks might have carried the war into Punic territories on Sicily. Himilco II was in no position to force an advantageous truce – and defeated generals were crucified in Carthage if they failed in war.  Himilco II chose to sacrifice some animals to the sea and sacrificed a human child (not known if it was his own) to a god Greeks associated with Kronos. It is unknown if the Carthaginians had taken any practical measures to combat the plague, but the plague stopped.   Himilco II then resumed the ramp building and dammed the Hypsas River to gain better access to the city.  Before he could take a crack at Akragas, Daphaenus of Syracuse arrived with 35,000 Sicilian and Italian Greek soldiers. Himilco kept a part of his army in the main camp to watch Akragas while the mercenaries marched east to fight the Greeks. Daphaenus defeated the mercenaries, drove the survivors to the main camp, and occupied the eastern camp, lifting the siege. Himilco II chose not to offer battle to the victorious Greeks, but he did not abandon his position either.  The Carthaginians were dependent on supplies brought overland from Western Sicily and foraging. There were no natural harbors near Akragas to house a large supply fleet.  Daphaenus began to harass the Carthaginians using peltasts (Greek light infantry or skirmishers) and cavalry from Akragas and soon the Carthaginians faced a food shortage as less and less supplies got through – while morale plummeted, the mercenaries came close to mutiny as winter approached.  

   Himilco II temporarily placated the unruly mercenaries by bribing them with the gold and silver tableware of Carthaginian officers, thus avoiding his army imploding from within. He still needed to improve his supply situation – and he seized on opportune information to achieve this.  The Greeks were using grain ships escorted by 30 triremes to supply Akragas and their army, and had become lax due to the absence of the Carthaginian navy in the vicinity. Just prior to the winter, the Carthaginians managed to learn of the approach of one such convoy beforehand. Himilco II then summoned 40 triremes from Motya and Panormus, which sailed up during the night and remained hidden from Greek scouts, then surprised the Greek flotilla at dawn as it sailed up without expecting any trouble; they sank eight Greek triremes and captured the entire supply flotilla. (Edward A. Freeman, History of Sicily) The Carthaginians now had food to last for several months and their morale improved. 

 The Greeks now faced the same problem – there was not enough food stocked at Akragas to feed both the population and the army until further supplies could be accumulated – and organizing that would take time because of the winter season. (cf. Diodorus Siculus) Mistrust between Greeks from various quarters now burst open when this news became public – thus reducing their ability to make a joint decision regarding continuing the conflict. Himilco II further aggravated the situation by bribing some Campanian mercenaries – who deserted to him. Rumors circulated that Himilco II had also bribed the Spartan Dexippus, leading 1,500 mercenaries. The tension now caused the Greek army to fall apart. Italian Greeks quit Akragas rather than face starvation, and soon other Greeks contingents and the whole population marched east to Gela. Himilco II took possession of the city, which was sacked.  Then Carthaginian army wintered in that city.

  In the following spring, Himilco II leveled Akragas and marched east to Gela. He did not circumvent the city with siege walls or “straddle” it by building several camps, but chose to encamp to the west of the city and carry it through assault that was unsuccessful.   Dionysius soon arrived with a relief force consisting of 30,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry and 50 triremes and camped to the east of the city (Brian Caven, Dionysius I: Warlord of Sicily) Himilco II chose to await developments in his camp and did not offer battle.

  Following the script used at Akragas, Dionysius harassed Carthaginian supply columns for 3 weeks with light troops. Nevertheless, some of the Greek leaders under him had other ideas and forced him to attack the Carthaginians. The Greeks then launched a three-pronged attack on the Carthaginian camp. The imaginative battle plan, if implemented properly, might have trapped the Carthaginians.  However, due to lack of coordination by Greek units it allowed the Carthaginians to destroy each of the three Greek units one at a time.  Dionysus then abandoned Gela, fell back to Camarina, and then left Camarina for Syracuse, while Himilco II’s forces sacked both the cities as the Carthaginians marched towards Syracuse

Ruins of Camarina 

  Himilco II did not press the pursuit but marched on Syracuse slowly. He thus missed an opportunity to destroy the forces still loyal to Dionysius.  Dionysius was left adrift between the Carthaginian army and a hostile Syracuse. However, he took speedy action and managed to recapture Syracuse. Himilco and the Carthaginians encamped near Syracuse but made no attempt to besiege the city (cf. Diodorus Siculus).  After a few weeks, Himilco sent a herald with a peace offer. It is suspected that a plague had broken out in the Carthaginian camp, causing the Carthaginians to request a truce. During the whole campaign, Himilco had lost more than half his army to the plague. In 405 BCE, a treaty was concluded: The treaty left Carthaginians supreme in Sicily with Syracuse isolated and Dionysius under suspicion of being a Carthaginian collaborator. 

The main conditions of the treaty were:

• Carthage keeps full control on the Phoenician cities in Sicily. Elymian and Sikan cities 

are in Carthaginian “Sphere of Influence”. 

• Greeks are allowed to return to Selinus, Akragas, Camarina and Gela. These cities, including the new city of Therma, would pay tribute to Carthage. Gela and Camarina were forbidden to repair their walls. 

• The cities of the Sicels and Messina were to remain free of Carthaginian and Syracusan 

influence, as was Leontini. This isolated Syracuse from the rest of Sicily.

Dionysius ruled for 38 years and engaged in four wars against Carthage with varying results

  Himilco returned to Carthage in disgrace. He was very badly received; he eventually committed suicide by starving himself. (After his death, the power of the “kings” was severely curtailed. The Power of the oligarchy, ruling through the “Council of Elders” and the newly created “Tribunal of 104,” correspondingly increased) (Lancel, Serge, Carthage A History, p 114).  The plague brought back from the war in Sicily ravaged Carthage to a certain extent, it did not spread everywhere, as one would expect.  However, at the same time Carthage was ravaged by a sever rebellion in Africa and Sardinia.
    Himilco II was succeeded by his relative Mago II in 396 BC.  Mago II was Shofet of Carthage from 396 to 375 BCE, and was a member of the Magonid dynasty. He became Shofet after the suicide of Himilco II in 396 BCE.  His reign started during the wars with the Greeks of Sicily, who under the leadership of Dionysius I of Syracuse had stalemated his predecessor and had now consolidated his power. He quelled a rebellion in Libya, and made peace with Syracuse at the expense of his Sicilian allies the Sicels.  
  The next clash took place in 393 BCE.  Dionysius defeated Mago II in an attempt to aid the Sicels under attack from Syracuse.  Carthage reinforced Mago II in 392 BCE. However, before he could engage the forces of Dionysius the Sicels switched sides.  Dionysius outmaneuvered the Carthaginian army, and peace soon followed, which allowed Carthage to retain her domain in Sicily while allowing Syracuse a free hand against the Sicels.

Temple to Minerva in Ancient Syracuse

  The treaty with Carthage lasted nine years.  After 390 BCE, Dionysius led an expedition against Rhegium and other Greek cities of southern Italy, and with the aid of the Lucanians, he devastated the territories of Thurii, Croton, and Locri. By the time, Rhegium fell (386 BCE); Dionysius had become the chief power in Greek Italy. He sent colonists to Illyria and possibly to northeast Italy. Although the Athenian writer Isocrates hailed him as a champion of Hellenism, the brutality of Dionysius’ conquests made him unpopular in Greece, and his literary pretensions were deplored. When he sent a splendid embassy to the Olympic festival of 388 BCE, a crowd pillaged the tents of his envoys.  Dionysius’ third war with Carthage (383–c. 375 BCE) proved just as disastrous. He suffered a crushing defeat at Cronium and had to pay an indemnity of 1,000 talents and cede the territory west of the Halycus River. Nevertheless, he was still engaged in yet another conflict with the Carthage at the time of his death.  Reportedly in 348 BCE Carthage made another treaty with Rome.   

  Carthaginian holdings west of the Halycus River remained secure. Hanno, a wealthy aristocrat, was in command in Sicily, and he and his family played a leading role in the politics of Carthage for the next fifty years. Carthage had entered into an alliance with the Etruscans, while Tarentum and Syracuse concluded a similar treaty.

    Carthage and Rome (by now a significant power in central Italy) concluded a second treaty in 348 BCE (Lazanby, J.F, The First Punic War, pp 31-33).  Romans could to trade with Sicily, but not to settle there, and Iberia, Sardinia, were off limits to Roman exploration, trade and settlement activities. The  Romans were to hand over any settlements there that they captured to Carthage.  Carthaginians pledged to be friendly with the Latins, and return to Rome cities captured in Latium (the Latin League was incorporated into the Roman Republic in 338 BCE).

  Hanno III 367?-340 BCE was the last ruler of the Magonid Dynasty. There were three leaders of ancient Carthage known as Hanno the Great, according to two historians (the Picards). These figures they call for convenience: Hanno I the Great, Hanno II the Great, and Hanno III the Great.  According to another historian (Warmington), there were three ancients of Carthage called Hanno "given the same  nickname", that is the Great, but he conjectures that it was a family nickname or a term not well understood by the ancient Greek or Roman writers.  The one already referred to here as "Hanno II the Great" he (Warmington) discusses but calls him simply "Hanno". Of course, it is an anomaly for multiple people to be called the same name.  In all, there were many historical figures named Hanno in ancient Carthage.  Nevertheless, here we are specifically talking about the last king of the Magonid Dynasty named Hanno.  Hanno the Great (III) was a politician and military leader of the 4th century BCE.  His title, according to Justin, was princeps Carthaginiensium. More likely, that the title signifies first among equals, rather than being a title of nobility or royalty.  His rival Suniatus was called the potentissimus Poenorum, or “the most powerful of the Carthaginians”, in the year 368 BCE. Several years later Suniatus was accused of high treason (for correspondence with Syracuse) and probably executed.  In 367, BCE Hanno (III) the Great commanded a fleet of 200 ships that won a decisive naval victory over the Greeks of Sicily. His victory effectively blocked the plans of Dionysius I of Syracuse to attack Lilybaeum, a city allied to Carthage in western Sicily. 

  With Sicily secure, Hanno III launched campaigns into Libya, Spain, and Mauritania.  From his successes he was given the title “the Great” (Magnus) along with great wealth.  Hamilcar and Gisco, his sons, served with distinction in these campaigns.  However, Hanno III aimed to obtain total power and planned to overthrow the “Council of Elders.” His scheme failed, leading to his execution along with and his family (Diodorus, XVI, 8), but his two sons were spared.