Phase 7

The First Punic War

  The First Punic War (264 to 241 BCE) was the first war fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic.  This was the first in a series of wars  fought  between Rome and Carthage called by the Romans the “Punic Wars” because of the Latin name for the Carthaginians: “Punici” is derived from the word Phoenici. The Punici (from Latin punicus, pl. punici) were a group of western Semitic-speaking peoples from Carthage in North Africa who traced their origins to a group of Phoenician settlers, but also to North African Berber Punic language ancestry ( Sidwell, Keith C.; Jones, Peter V. (1997). The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture). 

  By the mid 3rd century BC, the Romans had secured the whole of the Italian peninsula, except Gallia Cisalpina (the Po Valley). Over the course of the preceding one hundred years, Rome had defeated every rival that stood in the way of her domination on the Italian peninsula. First, they forcefully dissolved the Latin League during the Latin War, then the power of the Samnites was broken during the three prolonged Samnite wars, and the Greek cities of Greater Greece in Italy became theirs after Pyrrhus of Epirus returned home. When he left Italy, the Greek cities in southern Italy had to submit to Roman authority. (Starr, Chester G. (1965). A History of the Ancient World).

Location of Cisalpine Gaul ( or Gallia Cisalpina)

  By this time, Carthage considered itself the dominant naval power in the western Mediterranean. It had gradually became the center of a civilization whose influence reached along the North African coast and deep in its hinterland; it also included the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Corsica, a limited area in southern Spain, and the western half of Sicily (Starr, Chester G. (1965). A History of the Ancient World).

Map of Rome Before and After the Pyrrhic War

  At the start of the First Punic War Carthage was the dominant power of the western Mediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power in Italy, but it lacked the naval power of Carthage.  While Carthage’s navy was the largest in the ancient world at that time, it did not maintain a large permanent standing army.  Instead, Carthage relied mostly on mercenaries, especially the indigenous Numidians, to fight its wars.  However most of the officers that commanded their army were citizens of Carthage  On the other hand Rome had a large disciplined army, yet had no navy and were at a disadvantage until they began to construct their own huge fleets during this war. 

  When Agathocles died in 288 BCE, a group of Italian (Campanian) mercenaries originally hired by Agathocles of Syracuse—occupied the city of Messana (modern Messina) in the northeastern tip of Sicily, killing all the men and taking the women as their wives (Warmington, Brian Herbert (1993) [1960]. Carthage).

Ancient Messana (Messina)

  They called themselves the Mamertines (or “Sons of Mars”).  They became a law unto themselves terrorizing the surrounding countryside.  At the same time, a group of Roman troops made up of Campanian "citizens without the vote" also seized control of Rhegium, which lies across the straits on the mainland of Italy. In 270 BCE, the Romans regained control of Rhegium and severely punished the survivors of that revolt. In Sicily, the Mamertines ravaged the countryside and collided with the expanding regional empire of the independent city-state of Syracuse. Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse took action and in 265 BCE and defeated the Mamertines near Mylae on the Longanus River (Polybius. The Histories, 1:9.7-9.8).  

The Major Powers in the Western Mediterranean ca. 264 BCE.

  Faced with a vastly superior force, the Mamertines divided into two factions, one advocating surrender to Carthage, the other preferred to seek the aid from Rome. As a result, they sent embassies to both cities- so one faction appealed for help from Carthage and the other faction appealed for help from Rome. Acting first, the Carthaginians approached Hiero to take no further action and convinced the Mamertines to accept a Carthaginian garrison in Messana possibly to end in peace. The issue here is that the Carthaginians owned half the island and so should have known all about the Mamertines. That they had acquired territory illegally.  What we may have here is competition among empires.  Carthage did nothing wrong by placing a garrison in the city so that peace was ensured. The garrison was allowed to enter the city, and the Carthaginian fleet sailed into their harbor. They became alarmed when they discovered that Carthage was negotiating with Hiero II, and some were unhappy with the prospect of a Carthaginian garrison in the city. The Mamertines petitioned Rome for an alliance, asking them to expel the Carthaginians, hoping for protection that is more reliable. However, the rivalry between Rome and Carthage had grown since the war with Pyrrhus; therefore, according to Warmington, an alliance with both powers was simply no longer feasible (Warmington, Brian Herbert (1993) [1960]. Carthage).  Hiero II’s intervention had placed Carthage’s military forces directly across the narrow channel of water that separated Sicily from Italy.   Moreover, the presence of the Carthaginian fleet gave them effective control over this channel, the Strait of Messina, and demonstrated a clear and present danger to nearby Rome and her interests.

    According to the historian Polybius, considerable debate took place in Rome on the question as to whether to accept the Mamertines' appeal for help, and thus likely enter into a war with Carthage. While the Romans did not wish to come to the aid of soldiers who had unjustly stolen a city from its rightful owners, and although they were still recovering from the insurrection of Campanian troops at Battle of Rhegium in 271 BCE, many were also unwilling to see Carthaginian power in Sicily expand even further. Leaving the Carthaginians alone at Messana would give them a free hand to deal with Syracuse; after the Syracusans had been defeated, the Carthaginian takeover of Sicily would essentially be complete and become a possible serious threat (Polybius. The Histories, 1:10.7-10.9). A deadlocked senate put the matter before the popular assembly. (Polybius. The Histories, 1:11.3).  

  However, it was the Consul Appius Claudius Caudex who really managed to persuade the Roman citizens to support him in leading a military force to Sicily.  It appears Rome was looking for a reason or pretense to become an intermediary so they could get into the war in order to capture all of Sicily themselves.

Rome’s Arrival in Sicily 264-262 BCE

 Therefore, they gave him orders to do so. Upon his arrival in 264 BCE, the Carthaginians withdrew and he met with only symbolic resistance and although worried about the closeness of Carthage to Roman land, Claudius tried to send ambassadors to both the Carthaginians and the Syracusans. However, they ignored him because he had no business being there as far as they were concerned. He then led his troops outside the city, defeated the Syracusans in battle, and Hiero retreated to Syracuse. The next day Claudius also defeated the Carthaginians. Following these victories Claudius laid siege to Echetla but after the loss of many troops returned to Messana (Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, 23.3).  

   Sicily is a semi-hilly island, with geographical obstacles and rough terrain making lines of communication difficult to maintain. For this reason, land warfare played a secondary role in the First Punic War. Land operations for the most part were small-scale raids and skirmishes, with few pitched battles.   The main blockade targets were the important ports, since neither Carthage nor Rome were based in Sicily and both needed continuous reinforcements and communication with the mainland (Niebuhr, Barthold Georg (1844) Lectures on the history of Rome from the first Punic war to the death of Constantine).

  At first Hanno, the Messana garrison commander was the Carthaginian general//admiral prominent in the events at the start of the First Punic War. Hanno was a very common name amongst the Carthaginians hence the need to refer to him in this way, his surname being unknown.  After a brief siege, with no Greek help in sight, Syracuse made peace with the Romans. According to the terms of the treaty, Syracuse would become a Roman ally, would pay a somewhat light indemnity of 100 talents of silver to Rome, and, perhaps most importantly, would agree to help supply the Roman army in Sicily. This solved the Roman problem of having to keep an overseas army provisioned while facing an enemy with a superior navy. Following the defection of Syracuse, several other smaller Carthaginian dependencies in Sicily also switched to the Roman side. The Carthaginians subsequently crucified Hanno for what they considered as cowardice and lack of judgment in leaving the citadel of Messana ( Polybius, The Histories, 1:11.5). These actions outraged the Carthaginians who had lent aid to Syracuse.  With the two powers embroiled in the conflict, tension quickly built up into a full-scale war between the two empires for control of Sicily.

    Meanwhile, Carthage had begun to build a mercenary army in Africa, which was intended to go to Sicily to meet the Romans. According to the historian Philinus, this army was composed of 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and 60 elephants. According to Polybius, this army was partly composed of Ligurians, Celts and Iberians (Polybius. The Histories, 1:17.4) In past wars on the island of Sicily, Carthage had won out by relying on certain fortified strong-points throughout the island, and their plan was to conduct the land war in the same fashion. The mercenary army would operate in the open against the Romans, while the strongly fortified cities would provide a defensive base from which to operate (Warmington, Brian Herbert (1993) [1960]. Carthage.). Therefore, that was their basic planned strategy.  It had worked in the past why not again. 

  At the beginning of the First Punic War, Rome had virtually no experience in naval warfare, whereas the strong and powerful Carthage had a great deal of experience on the seas thanks to its centuries of sea-based trade. Nevertheless, the growing Roman Republic soon understood the importance of control of the Mediterranean in the outcome of the conflict  (Zoch, Paul A. (2000). Ancient Rome: An Introductory History).

  The Romans intended to send two legions to Sicily in 262 BCE, probably willing to negotiate peace with Carthage. Since 264 BCE, when they had declared war on Carthage, there had not been much serious fighting between the two except for a small fight in the straits of Messana. The Carthaginians also made conciliatory gestures at the start of the war, but in 262 BCE, they started to increase their forces in Sicily. Once the Carthaginians started increasing their forces on the island, the Romans sent more consuls there. The consuls were generals of the Roman army, and with the consuls traveled several legions.  The Carthaginians hired Ligurian, Celtic, and Spanish mercenaries to induce their enemies in Sicily to attack the Romans on the half of the island that the Romans controlled. Agrigentum at this point became the main base for the Carthaginians.  

(Lazenby, John Francis (1996). The First Punic War: a military history). 

Temple in Agrigentum

  Agrigentum (known to the Greeks as Akragas), would be the next Roman objective. In 262 BCE, Rome besieged Agrigentum, an operation that involved both consular armies—a total of four Roman legions—and took several months to resolve. The garrison of Agrigentum managed to call for reinforcements and the Carthaginian relief force commanded by Hanno came to the rescue and destroyed the Roman supply base at Erbessus. With supplies from Syracuse cut, the Romans became the besieged and constructed a line of contravallation (Polybius. The Histories, 1:19).  A line of circumvallation is a line of fortifications, built by the attackers around the besieged fortification facing towards an enemy fort (to protect the besiegers from sorties by its defenders and to enhance the blockade). The resulting fortifications are known as ‘lines of circumvallation. (Oxford English Dictionary: circumvallation, n. Second edition, 1989); online version December 2011).   After a few skirmishes, disease struck the Roman army while supplies in Agrigentum were running low, and both sides saw an open battle as preferable to the current situation. Although the Romans won a clear victory over the Carthaginian relief force at the Battle of Agrigentum, the Carthaginian army defending the city managed to escape. Agrigentum, now lacking any real defenses, fell easily to the Romans, who then sacked the city and enslaved the populace (Polybius. The Histories).

    At the beginning of the First Punic War, Rome had virtually no experience in naval warfare.  After their victory of Agrigentum in 261 BCE, the, Romans constructed their first fleet. Some historians have speculated that, since Rome lacked advanced naval technology, the design of the warships was either copied from captured Carthaginian triremes and quinqueremes or from ships that had beached on Roman shores due to storms (Lazenby, John Francis (1996). The First Punic War: A Military History). Other historians have pointed out that Rome did have experience with naval technology, as she patrolled her coasts against piracy. Another possibility is that Rome received technical assistance from its seafaring Sicilian ally, Syracuse (Reynolds, Clark G. (1998). Navies in History). Regardless of the state of their naval technology at the start of the war, Rome quickly adapted (Roberts, Peter (2006). Ancient History, Book 2.).

 The leadership of Carthage decided to avoid direct land-based engagements with the powerful Roman legions, and concentrate on the sea where they believed they had the advantage.  Initially the navy of Carthage prevailed.  However, in 260 BC they were defeated by the fledgling Roman navy at the Battle of the Lipori Islands.

Battle of the Lipari Islands

  Rome had responded by drastically expanding its navy in a very short time.  Because the Romans knew, they could not defeat the Carthaginians with conventional tactics of ramming.  They devised a way to board the Carthaginian ships at sea with soldiers from their ships over an assault bridge called a “covus.”  Apparently they had devised a way to grapple the side of a Carthaginian ship to theirs swing the bridge around to board the enemy ship over which Roman infantry boarded the Carthaginian ship to capture it.  This allowed Rome’s superior infantry to board an enemy ship in a military battle at sea.  However, the “covus” did offer some problems when navigating the Roman ships at sea.

The Covus (Naval Assault Bridge)

    The Roman advance continued westward from Agrigentum to relieve in 260 BCE the besieged city of Macella. In the north, the Romans, with their northern sea flank secured by their naval victory at Battle of Mylae, advanced toward Thermae. They were defeated there by the Carthaginians under Hamilcar (a popular Carthaginian name, not to be confused with Hannibal Barca's father, with the same name) in 260 BCE. (Polybius. The Histories, 1:24.3-24.4.). The Carthaginians took advantage of this victory by counterattacking, in 259 BCE, and seizing Enna. Hamilcar continued south to Camarina, in Syracusan territory, presumably with the intent to convince the Syracusans to rejoin the Carthaginian side (Lazenby, John Francis (1996). The First Punic War: A Military History).

  In 258 BCE, the Romans proceeded to attack the forces of Carthage on Sicily.  First they 

were able to retake Enna and Camarina.  Then the Romans marched along the north coast of the island and attacked Panormus, but were not able to take the city (Polybius. The Histories, 1:24.10-24.13).  Seeking a swifter end to the war rather than  long sieges in Sicily would have provided, Rome decided to invade the Carthaginian colonies of Africa and usurp Carthage's supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea, consequently forcing Carthage to accept its terms (Warmington, Brian Herbert (1993) [1960]. Carthage).

    In order to initiate its invasion of Africa, the Roman Republic constructed a major fleet, comprising transports for the army and its equipment, and warships for protection. 

A Roman Quinererme

  Carthage attempted to intervene with a fleet of 350 ships (according to Polybius) (Polybius. The Histories, 1:25.9), but was defeated in the Battle of Cape Ecnomus(Warmington, Brian Herbert (1993) [1960]. Carthage).  Because of the battle, the Roman army, commanded by Marcus Atilius Regulus, landed in Africa and began ravaging the Carthaginian countryside. At first, Regulus was victorious, winning the Battle of Adys and forcing Carthage to sue for peace. The terms were so heavy that negotiations failed and, in response, the Carthaginians hired Xanthippus, a Spartan mercenary, to reorganize the army. Xanthippus defeated the Roman army and captured Regulus at the Battle of Tunis,  and then managed to cut off what remained of the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy (Warmington, Brian Herbert (1993) [1960]. Carthage).  Like the Straits of Messina separating Roman Italy from Sicily, Cape Bon in Tunis was also a location that separated Carthage from Sicily by a small distance and a Roman fleet in that area would have been just as much a threat to Carthage.

Cape Bon

  The Romans, meanwhile, had sent a new fleet to pick up the survivors of its African expedition. Although the Romans defeated the Carthaginian fleet and were successful in rescuing its army in Africa, a storm destroyed nearly the entire Roman fleet on the trip home; the number of casualties in the disaster may have exceeded 90,000 men (Warmington, Brian Herbert (1993) [1960]).The Carthaginians took advantage of this to attack Agrigentum. They did not believe that they could hold the city, so they burned it and left (Smith, William (1854). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (PDF).

  Once again, Rome returned to the strategy of taking the Carthaginian cities in Sicily one by one.  Attacks began with naval assaults on Lilybaeum, the center of Carthaginian power on Sicily, and a raid on Africa.

Ruins of Lilybaeum

  Both efforts ended in failure. The Romans retreated from Lilybaeum, and the African force was 

caught in another storm and destroyed (Warmington, Brian Herbert (1993) [1960]. Carthage).

  The Romans, however, made great progress in the north. They captured the city of Thermae in 252 BC, and advanced on the port city of Panormus. The Romans attacked this city after taking Kephalodon in 251 BC. After fierce fighting, the Carthaginians were defeated and the city fell. With Panormus captured, much of western inland of Sicily fell with it. The cities of Ietas, Solous, Petra, and Tyndaris agreed to peace with the Romans that same year (Lazenby, John Francis (1996). The First Punic War: A Military History).

  In 247 BC, Carthage sent General Hamilcar Barca (Hannibal's father) to Sicily. His landing at Heirkte (near Panormus) drew the Romans away to defend that port city and re-supply point and gave the city of Drepana some breathing room. Subsequent guerilla warfare kept the Roman legions pinned down and preserved Carthage's toehold in Sicily, although Roman forces which bypassed Hamilcar forced him to relocate to Eryx, to better defend Drepana (Smith, William (1854). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (PDF).

Ruins of Eryx

  Perhaps in response to Hamilcar's raids, Rome built another fleet (paid for with donations from wealthy citizens). This fleet rendered the Carthaginian success in Sicily futile, as the stalemate Hamilcar produced in Sicily became irrelevant following the Roman naval victory at the Battle of the Aegadian Islands in 241 BCE.  The new Roman fleet under consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus was victorious over an undermanned and hastily built Carthaginian fleet. 

Battle for the Aegadian Islands

  Carthage lost most of its fleet and was economically incapable of funding another, or of finding new crews (Mokhtar, Gamal (1981). Ancient Civilizations of Africa).  With the invention of the covus, the Roman infantry played a big part in the naval conflict and enabled the Romans to win most of their engagements except the Battle of Tunis and two other naval engagements at sea.

  Without naval support, Hamilcar Barca was cut off from Carthage, forced to negotiate peace, and agreed to evacuate Sicily (Bedford, Alfred S.; Bradford, Pamela M. (2001) With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World). It should be noted that Hamilcar Barca had a subordinate named Gisco conduct the negotiations with Lutatius, in order to create the impression that he had not really been defeated (Sidwell, Keith C.; Jones, Peter V. (1997). The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture).
  But the fact was Rome had kicked Carthage off the island of Sicily completely. The war had been bitter and 23 years long and in the end Rome became the dominant naval power in the Mediterranean Sea.   In the aftermath of the war, both states were financially and demographically exhausted (Bringmann, Klaus (2007). A History of the Roman Republic). Corsica, Sardinia and Africa remained Carthaginian, but they had to pay a high war indemnity. Rome’s persistence brought forth victory in Battle. Moreover, the Roman Republic's ability to attract private investments in the war effort to fund ships and crews was one of the deciding factors of the war, particularly when contrasted with the Carthaginian nobility's apparent unwillingness to risk their fortunes for the common war effort, which may have been typical for their way of thinking.  They were businesspersons first and warriors second.
  In 241 BCE, Carthage signed a peace treaty under the terms in which they evacuated Sicily and had to pay a large war indemnity.  This war had been costly to both powers.The terms of peace definitely did not make good business sense.  They were as follows:

Carthage evacuates Sicily and the small islands west of it (Aegadian Islands).

Carthage returns their prisoners of war without ransom, while paying a heavy ransom on their own

Carthage refrains from attacking Syracuse and her allies.

Carthage transfers a group of small islands north of Sicily (the Aeolian Islands and Ustica) to Rome.

Carthage evacuates all of the small islands between Sicily and Africa (Pantelleria, Linosa, Lampedusa, Lampione and Malta).

Carthage pays a 2,200 talent (66 tonnes/145,000 pounds) of silver indemnity in ten annual installments, plus an additional indemnity of 1,000 talents (30 tonnes/66,000 pounds) immediately.

  Carthage spent years after this war improving its finances and expanding its colonial empire in Iberia (Spain) under the militaristic Barcid family.  The Barcid family during the 3rd century BC was one of the leading families of the ruling oligarchy in Carthage.  Many of its members were fierce enemies of the Roman Republic.  The patriarch Hamilicar Barca (275-228 BCE) served as a Carthaginian general in the First Punic War. Respected by all, made his eldest son Hannibal swear a sacred oath upon the altar of the gods “to never be a friend of Rome.”  Hamilcar Barca and his wife (name unknown) had five children; he had two daughters one married Bomilcar the other Hasdrabal the Fair.  He had three sons Hannibal, Hasdrabal, and Mago.

  In the aftermath of the war, Carthage had insufficient state funds. Hanno the Great tried to induce the disbanded armies to accept diminished payment, but this kindled a movement that led to an internal conflict - the Mercenary War.

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Phase 6

The Pyrrhic War

  In Italy to the north of the Roman controlled region of Latium lay the Etruscan cities, and to the south was the Roman controlled Samnium. South of there lay the Greek city-states of Greater Greece (Magna Grecia) : politically independent cities in southern Italy and Sicily, settled by Greek colonists in the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. Both in Sicily and on the mainland, conflict between all of these groups was ongoing. The Second Latin War (340–338 BCE) had placed the Latium region under Roman dominance, if not outright control, and the resistance of the Samnites against Roman control was coming to an end with a few minor conflicts being the only remnants of the Samnite Wars (343–290 BCE).

Samnite Soldiers

  The patchwork of Italian and Sicilian cultures and nations had resulted in continuing conflicts and territory changes, which in recent decades had seen an expansion of Roman influence over Italy. Rome was, however, a "local Italian concern", never having tried its hand in the larger international affairs of the Mediterranean, nor pitted its military strength against any of the dominant Greek cultures. The Pyrrhic war would change both of these facts.

   Between 280-275 BCE, Pyrrhus of Epirus waged two major campaigns in an effort to protect and spread the influence of the Macedonians in the western Mediterranean, one against the emerging power of the Roman Republic in Italy, the other against Carthage in Sicily.

  The Pyrrhic War was a complex series of battles and shifting political alliances among the Greeks (specifically Epirus, Macedonia, and the city states of Greater Greece), the Italian peoples (primarily the Roman Republic, Samnites and the Etruscans), and the Carthaginians. Most historical treatments of the conflict concentrate on the conflicts between Pyrrhus of Epirus and Rome. Carthage and Rome were allies in this conflict. While Carthage did, in fact, pledge aid to Rome in 280 BCE, it is unclear what this aid consisted of, or how influential it was in the war. Later in the conflict, Carthage was involved in its own war with Pyrrhus in Sicily. There seems to have been no coordinated military efforts between Carthage and Rome.

Pyrrhus

  Pyrrhus was the son of Aeacides and Phthia, a Thessalian woman, and a second cousin of Alexander the Great (via Alexander's mother, Olympias). He had two sisters: Deidamia and Troias. Pyrrhus was only two years old when his father lost the throne, in 317 BCE, his family taking refuge with Glaukias, king of the Taulantians, one of the largest Illyrian tribes. Beroea,  Glaukias’s wife and a Molossian of the Aeacidae dynasty (cf. Plutarch Parallel Lives), raised Pyrrhus.  Glaukias restored Pyrrhus to the throne in 306 BCE until his enemy, Cassander, had him banished four years later.   In 298 BCE, Pyrrhus became a hostage and was taken to Alexandria, under the terms of a peace treaty made between  Demetrius and Ptolemy I Soter. There, he married Ptolemy I's stepdaughter Antigone (a daughter of Berenice I of Egypt from her first husband Philip, Ptolemy I's wife and a Macedonian noble). They restored him to his kingdom with a co-ruler in Epirus in 297 BCE with financial and military aid from Ptolemy I. Pyrrhus had his co-ruler Neoptolemus II of Epirus murdered. 

 The Greek city of Tarentum had attacked and sacked the city of Thurii and expelled the newly installed Roman garrison there in 282 BCE.

Ruins of Thurii

  That same year, the city of Thurii petitioned Rome for military assistance because of this.  In response, Rome sent out a fleet of ships that entered the Bay of Tarentum. This act violated a longstanding treaty between it and the city of Tarentum, which forbade Rome from entering Tarentine waters. Enraged by what it considered a hostile aggression, the city attacked the fleet, sinking several ships and sending the rest away. Rome was shocked and angered by this incident and sent out diplomats to defuse the situation. However, negotiations turned sour, leading to a declaration of war against Tarentum.  Rome had already made itself into a major power, and was poised to subdue all the Greek cities of Greater Greece. Committed to war, Tarentum appealed to Pyrrhus of Epirus.  The Tarentines asked Pyrrhus to lead them in war against the Romans.  Pyrrhus was encouraged to aid the Tarentines by the oracle of Delphi. His goals were not, however, selfless. He recognized the possibility of carving out an empire for himself in Italy. He made an alliance with Ptolemy Ceraunus, King of Macedon his most powerful neighbor, and arrived in Italy in late 282 BCE.

  He entered Italy with an army consisting of 3,000 cavalry, 2,000 archers, 500 slingers, 20,000 infantry and 20 war elephants in a bid to subdue the Romans. The elephants had been loaned to him by Ptolemy II, who had also promised 9,000 soldiers and a further 50 elephants to defend Epirus while Pyrrhus and his army was away.  Pyrrhus defeated the Romans in the Battle of Heraclea.

War Elephants

  A war elephant was an elephant trained and guided by humans for combat. Their main use was to charge the enemy, breaking their ranks and instilling terror. Elephantry was military units with elephant-mounted troops. Elephants were used first in India, the practice spreading out across Southeast Asia and westwards into the Mediterranean. Their most famous use in the West was by the Greek general Pyrrhus of Epirus and in significant numbers by the armies of Carthage, including briefly by Hannibal.  The first elephant species that was tamed was the Asian Elephant, for use in agriculture. Elephant taming - not full domestication, as they were captured in the wild, rather than bred in captivity - may have begun in any of three different places. The oldest evidence comes from the Indus Valley Civilization, around roughly 4500 BCE. Archaeological evidence for the presence of wild elephants in the Yellow River valley during the Shang Dynasty (1600–1100 BCE) of China may suggest that they also used elephants in warfare (  William Dwight Whitney;  Benjamin Eli Smith  "Elephantry“  1911 ed.).  The Ptolemies and the Carthaginians began acquiring African elephants for the same purpose, as did the Numidians and the Kushites. The animal used was the North African forest elephant, which would become extinct from over-exploitation. ( Elephas maximus asurus) . These animals were smaller than the Asian elephants used by the Seleucids on the east of the Mediterranean region, particularly those from Syria, which stood 2.5-3.5 meters (8–10 ft) at the shoulder. It is likely that at least some Syrian elephants were traded abroad. The favorite, and perhaps last surviving elephant of Hannibal's 218 BCE crossing of the Alps was an impressive animal named Surus ("the Syrian"), and may have been of Syrian stock,  (  Wilford, John Noble September 18, 1984- "The Mystery  Of Hannibal’s Elephants) though the evidence remains ambiguous.

  Pyrrhus' involvement in the regional conflicts of Sicily reduced the Carthaginian influence there drastically. In Italy, his involvement seems to have been mostly ineffectual but had long-term implications. The Pyrrhic War proved both that the states of ancient Greece had essentially become incapable of defending the independent colonies of Greater Greece, and that the Roman legions were capable of competing with the armies of the Hellenistic kingdoms — the dominant Mediterranean powers of the time. This opened the way for Roman dominance over the city-states of Greater Greece and advanced the Roman consolidation of power in Italy greatly. Rome's proven record in international military conflicts would also aid its resolve in its rivalry with Carthage. Linguistically, the Pyrrhic War is the source of the expression "Pyrrhic victory," a term for a victory won at too high a cost. Its origin is seen in Plutarch’s description of Pyrrhus’ reaction to the report of a victorious battle:

“The two armies separated; and we are told that Pyrrhus said to the one who was congratulating him on his victory: “If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined”( Plutarch. ”Pyrrhus 21.9". Plutarch's Lives. Bernadotte Perrin (translator). Cambridge, MA.).

  In 279 BCE, Pyrrhus fought his second major battle of the war at Asculum, this one on a much greater scale in the hills of Apulia.  The Roman Consul (general) Publius Mus managed to use the terrain against the Greek cavalry and elephants.  The battle took two days and Pyrrhus had to attack the Romans twice.  The second time he attacked with infantry and elephants, which overwhelmed Mus’ position.  The Romans lost 6,000 men while Pyrrhus’ army lost 3,500 men.

The Hills of Apulia

  Pyrrhus’ next move to was to seek a treaty with Rome, but Rome would not talk as long as Pyrrhus remained on Roman soil.   Appius Claudius, who had built the Appian Way, exhorted the Roman leaders to enter into negotiations with Pyrrhus, who at this point was only asking for the freedom of Tarentum and her allies.  Next Pyrrhus tried to enter into an alliance with Carthage against Rome, but the Carthaginians seeing Pyrrhus as the greater threat refused to send a squadron of ships up the mouth of the Tiber River and help him.  Carthage then made its third treaty with Rome and it became an effectual alliance between them against Pyrrhus.

   In Sicily, veterans of Agathocles settled now at Messana, offered their help, but Campania and most of southern Italy gave Pyrrhus no encouragement.   Only Etruria thought the tide had turned against Rome, quickly to discover its mistake.  In the midst of Pyrrhus' Italian campaigns, he had received envoys from the Sicilian cities of Agrigentum, Syracuse, and Leontini, asking for military aid to remove the Carthaginian dominance over that island (Plutarch, Life of Pyrrhus, 22:1–22:3).   After two campaigns in which, though he always won battles, Pyrrhus ended up losing more men than he could afford, He moved on to Sicily in 278 BCE to aid the Greeks there, who were under pressure of the Carthaginians. The Romans had little difficulty in dealing with his friends and rear guards on the Italian mainland.

  Carthage had attacked Syracuse and besieged the city after seizing Akragas. Mago, the Carthaginian admiral, had 100 ships blockading the city. Pyrrhus agreed to intervene, and sailed for Sicily. When Pyrrhus sailed for Sicily, the Carthaginians did not wait to for an attack, They were besieging Syracuse his necessary supply base, and looking for him with their fleet, However Pyrrhus managed to evade them and drove off the besieging army.   Mago lifted the siege and Pyrrhus fortified the Sicilian cities with an army of 20,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry and 20 war elephants, supported by some 200 ships. Initially, Pyrrhus' Sicilian campaign against Carthage was a success, pushing back the Carthaginian forces, and capturing the city-fortress of Eryx, even though he was not able to capture Lilybaeum (Plutarch, Life of Pyrrhus, 22:4–22:6). After a two-month siege, Pyrrhus withdrew from Lilybaeum.   Pyrrhus refused the Carthaginian offer to surrender everything in Sicily except for Lilybaeum, which they direly needed if they sought to keep their hold on Sardinia. 

  All the while, Pyrrhus’ losses had been heavy and his reinforcements few. Back in Italy, the Romans at the Battle of the Cranita hills defeated his Samnite allies. In addition, the Romans were hard pressing Tarentum, and between the Romans and the Carthaginian fleet, he feared being trapped in Sicily. So in a desperate attempt he returned once more to Italy, to fight one more campaign.  En-route to his return to Italy his fleet was defeated by the Carthaginian fleet, Pyrrhus lost 70 ships in this battle.

Map of the Pyrrhic War

  Once in Italy Pyrrhus met the Romans at the town of Maleventum in southern Italy and suffered a severe defeat.   The Romans had learned that they could wound the elephants in the side using their pila, the short throwing spears that had come into use during the Samnite Wars. This would in turn panic the elephants, which ran out of control and trampled their own troops.  He then entered Tarentum for the duration of the war. Pyrrhus soon left Italy forever and returned to the Greek mainland, leaving a sufficient force to garrison Tarentum. He had lost two thirds of his army during the fighting and had little to show for his efforts. His parting words were memorable: "What a battlefield I am leaving for Carthage and Rome!"

   He had scarcely embarked before Tarentum surrendered to the Romans in 272 BCE.  Rome treated the Tarentines leniently, allowing them the same local self-rule it allowed other cities. Tarentum in turn recognized Rome's hegemony in Italy and became another of Rome's allies, while a Roman garrison remained in Tarentum to ensure its loyalty. Other Greek cities and the Bruttian tribes with their valuable forest-country surrendered likewise, undertaking to supply Rome with ships and crews in the future. Some Greek cities may still have seen themselves as allies, rather than subjects, of Rome.

   After its defeat of Pyrrhus, Rome was recognized as a major power in the Mediterranean, as evidenced by the opening of a permanent embassy of amity by the Macedonian king of Egypt in Rome.

  Rome made new colonies in the southern part of Italy all the way to the toe of the boot. In the north the last free Etruscan city, Volsinii, was destroyed after they revolted in 264 BCE. There, too, new colonies were established to cement Roman rule. Rome was now mistress of the entire peninsula from the Straits of Messina to the Apennine frontier with the Gauls along the Arnus and the Rubicon rivers.

Phase 5

The End of the Monarchy

  Gisco and Hamilcar II were brothers the sons of Hanno III (the Great).  When their father had been executed, Hamilcar II received the throne.  Hamilcar, one of the ablest generals that the Carthaginians ever had, was in command of their forces in Africa. Nevertheless, after a series of great successes, a faction, who was jealous of his reputation, opposed him and they charged him with planning to undermine the liberties of the people. Through their influence, he was condemned, and executed; and his brother Gisco was banished. They appointed no new generals; but under the other generals command, the Carthaginian armies met with nothing but repeated defeats, until their very survival became a matter of doubt.

  While this was going on things in Sicily had started to brew again and may well been the cause of their armies being defeated.  The death of Dionysius ultimately led to a power struggle between Dion, and Dionysius II of Syracuse and other contenders.  The Punic holdings in Sicily were secure, as Syracuse had begun to lose its government control over the Sicilian cities because of internal conflict that turned into open warfare.  

  Because of the political problems of Syracuse and the threat from Sparta, a group of Syracusans sent an appeal for help to the City of Corinth in Greece, which arrived there in in 344 BCE.  Corinth could not refuse to help though her chief citizens declined the responsibility. Timoleon by an unknown voice  was nominated in the assembly and was chosen to carry out the mission by a unanimous vote.  He set sail for Sicily with a few leading citizens of Corinth and a small troop of mercenaries.  He eluded the Carthaginian squadron stationed at Tauromenium (now Taormina) and upon arrival was given a friendly reception. 

Timoleon of Corinth

  Carthage had done little directly during 364-345 BCE to interfere, but in 343 BCE, they decided to oppose Timoleon. The Carthaginians failed to stop his ascent to power in Syracuse.  Mago the Carthaginian commander had the advantage of numbers and the support of allied Greeks, was even admitted into Syracuse.  However, he bungled so much that he killed himself rather than face the Tribunal of the 104 in Carthage.  Timoleon managed to gain the support of the tyrants in league with Carthage, and the Punic expedition sent to Sicily in retaliation of Syracusan raids was defeated in the Battle of Crimissus by the combined Greek forces.

  In early June of 339 BCE, the battle was fought. Timoleon was positioned on a hill with his army, overlooking a plain were the Carthaginian army was located. The Crimissus River separated the two armies and covered the plain in a thick fog, making it impossible to see the Carthaginian camp. However, the noise signaled the Greeks that the Carthaginians were going to cross the river. The sun had risen higher in the sky and dissipated the fog on the plain, making the Carthaginian troops visible. The four-horse chariots were at the vanguard of the army. Behind them was infantry that the Greeks identified as Carthaginian citizens and at the rear were the foreign troops. When Timoleon saw their army separated by the river, it gave him a good opportunity to attack. He decided to send the cavalry ahead to prevent the Carthaginian citizen infantry from forming their phalanx (Plutarch 1918, 27.1–7).  The phalanx in Ancient Greece: was a rectangular mass military formation, usually composed entirely of heavy infantry armed with spears, pikes, sarissas, or similar weapons ( Oxford English Dictionary).

A Greek Phalanx

  Timoleon then commanded his army to descend into the plain. He assigned the other Sicilian Greeks and a few of his mercenaries to his wings. He commanded the center, which was composed of the Syracusans and his best mercenaries. He saw that his cavalry could not attack the enemy infantry because of the chariots. He ordered his cavalry to ride past the line of chariots to attack the infantry on the flank. He then charged the enemy with the infantry. The Carthaginian citizen infantry resisted the Greeks sturdily however, thanks to their excellent armor and large shields. Fortunately, for the Greeks a thunderstorm rose up behind them and started a shower of hail and rain. The storm hit the Greeks in the back, but the Carthaginians in the face. The storm put them at a severe disadvantage: the water and mud made them ineffective fighters because of their heavy armor. To make things worse for the Carthaginians, the storm caused the Crimissus to overflow from its banks and many smaller streams to flow over the plain ( Plutarch 1918, 27.7–28.7).

    The Carthaginian army fled when the Greeks defeated the first rank of four hundred men. Many of those who fled over the plain the Greeks overran and killed. Some drowned in the river when they met that part of the Carthaginian army, which still tried to cross the river. Out of the 10,000 casualties for the Carthaginian army, 3,000 were Carthaginian citizens. Carthage had never lost so many of its own citizens before because it normally employed Libyans, Numidians and Iberians for its armies. At least 5,000 prisoners were  taken. As they stripped the dead bodies of their possessions the Greeks acquired a great deal of gold and silver from the dead rich Carthaginian citizens lying on the battlefield (Plutarch 1918, 28.8–29).

   It was after this battle that Gisco the son of Hanno III was recalled and elected king. In these difficulties, what could they do? They could not raise Hamilcar from his tomb. They therefore sent a contrite letter to Gisco, recalling him from exile and appointing him general of their armies. They promised to hand over to him his own, and his brother's enemies, for him to punish as he wished. Gisco, on his return to his country, ordered that his enemies to be brought before him in chains. He ordered them to lie down upon their bellies on the ground, and he thrice put his foot lightly upon their necks. Then he said that, by this humiliation, he had taken sufficient revenge on them for his brother's death. After this, he dismissed them saying, “I will not return evil with evil, but repay evil with good.” This conduct won Gisco the favor and ready obedience of all parties, both of friends and enemies as someone who was both amiable and great. 

  Nevertheless, he achieved little against Timoleon, who had captured some pro-Carthaginian Greek cities.  In 338 BCE, a peace treaty was concluded.  The accord left the Punic possessions in Sicily unchanged, with Syracuse left to deal with the other cities in Sicily.

     While Carthage had been engaged in Sicily, the rise of Macedonia under Philip II and Alexander the Great saw the defeat of the Greek city-states and the fall of the Persian Empire.  All of the mainland Phoencian cities had submitted to Alexander except Tyre. The city was besieged and sacked in 332 BCE. The Carthaginian citizens present in the city were spared.

Alexander the Great

  Carthage sent two delegations to Alexander, one in 332 BCE and another in 323 BCE  However, their success was minimal.  Alexander was building a fleet in Cilicia for the invasion of Carthage, Italy, and Iberia when he died, sparing Carthage the ordeal.  Battle among the three successors of Alexander and the ultimate three-way struggle among the Antigonid, Ptolemaic Egypt, and Seleucid Syria spared Carthage any further clashes with the successor states for some time  Trade relations with Egypt was opened, giving Carthage sea-borne access to the eastern markets, which had been cut off since 480 BCE.

  The next leader of Syracuse was Agathocles, who was born at Thermae Himeraeae (modern name Termini Imerese) in Sicily. The son of a potter who had moved to Syracuse in about 343 BCE, he learned his father's trade, but afterwards entered the army. In 333 BCE, he married the widow of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen. Twice he was banished for attempting to overthrow the oligarchic party in Syracuse ( Chisholm, Hugh, ed.  Encyclopedia Britannica).

Remains of a Greek Temple in Syracuse

    Agathocles then married the Greek Ptolemaic Princess Theoxena in his third marriage she was a stepdaughter of Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt.   In 317 BCE, he returned with an army of mercenaries under a solemn oath to observe the democratic constitution, which was established after they entered the city, but this did not last long. After having banished and murdered some 10,000 citizens, he thus made himself master of Syracuse, he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the greater part of Sicily  In 315 BCE, Agathocles, now tyrant of Syracuse, seized the city of Messene (present-day Messina).   In 311 BCE, he invaded the last Carthaginian holdings on Sicily, breaking the terms of the current peace treaty, and lay siege to Akragas (“Greek and Macedonian Land Battles of the 4th Century B.C” by Fred Eugene Ray, Jr,).  War with Carthage followed.   Hamilcar II led the Carthaginian response and met with tremendous success. In 311 BCE, Agathocles was defeated in the Battle of the Himera River and besieged in Syracuse.  By 310 BCE, he controlled almost all of Sicily while laying siege on Syracuse itself.  In desperation, Agathocles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men to save his rule by leading a counterstroke against Carthage itself.  The expedition ravaged the Carthaginian possessions in Africa.  From Sicily, troops were recalled under the joint commands of the generals Hanno and Bomilcar (who were two political rivals).  Agathocles defeated them. Hanno himself was killed in the battle.   

  In Africa Agathocles concluded a treaty with Ophellas, ruler of Cyrenaica, who was probably related to Ptolemy of Egypt.   He came from Cyrene with an additional 10,000 troops to aid the Syracusans.  Agathocles eventually murdered Ophellas and took over his army.  Although the Greeks managed to capture Utica, Carthage continued to resist and Syracuse remain blockaded.  

    Meanwhile in Sicily the Carthaginian commanding general Hamilcar led a night attack on Syracuse, which failed, leading to his capture and execution.  Agathocles abandoned his army in Africa and returned to Syracuse where a treaty to divide Sicily into Punic and Greek domains was made.

    In 309 BCE, after Gisco died Bomilcar was made king.  A year after this, after many delays and misgivings, he attempted to seize absolute government control with the aid of 500 citizens and a number or mercenaries, but his followers were persuaded to desert him by promises of pardon and he was taken prisoner and crucified.  One more battle was fought against Agathocles in 307 BCE this time the Greeks lost.  Thereafter the Greek world became preoccupied with their empires in the East and lost interest in expanding their colonies in Sicily.  Greek influence was replaced by Rome as the new rival of Carthage.  During this time, Carthage expanded its commercial sphere of influence, building markets on the African coast, in southern Iberia and among the islands of the western Mediterranean, venturing into the trade routes of the Sahara.  Carthage explored the commercial opportunities beyond the Pillars of Hercules in the Atlantic.  Carthage also established authority directly among the Numidian Berber peoples in the city and surrounding areas who grew more and more prosperous.

    With the death of Bomilcar came the end of the monarchy in Carthage.  Now the Tribunal of 104 took control of the empire.  There was no longer a single ruler or judge of the land.  Carthage was controlled by a council of elders or a senate, under the Tribunal of 104, this led Carthage to become in name as well as fact a republic. 

    According to the Greek historian Philinus, Carthage signed a treaty with Rome in 306 BC.  The main feature of this treaty was the same as the previous ones, that Rome would not support or intervene in Sicily, and Carthage would not influence events in Italy.  The historian Polybius considers this treaty a forgery.  Even so, by this time both sides probably adhered to this policy anyway.

City of Carthage as it might have looked at this time.

   The Tribunal of 104 gained dominance in political matters.  They were known in the past as simply, “Hundred and Four,” or “Council of 104.  It was a Carthaginian tribunal of Judges.  They had been created early in Carthage’s history, and were considered the highest constitutional authority of Carthage.  The 104 were in charge of judging generals and the military, who exercised a great deal of independence from the senate and government of Carthage. The 104 originally had been intended to provide a check to ensure that the military served the needs of the people.  In the constitution, the senate had the right to control the magistrates, but this body of 104 Judges controlled the senate, and therefore the magistrates as well.  Nor was it content to control the senate, it practically succeeded it. No Shophet (Judge), no senator, no general was exempt from their absolute rule.   The 104 held their positions for life until Hannibal’s time 

Phase 4

Age of Exploration and Expansion

   If indeed Carthage was crippled, she was not immobile.  Focus shifted on expansion of territory in Africa and Sardinia and the exploration of Africa and Europe for new markets.  The grandsons of Mago I, Hannibal, and Hasdrubal, Sappho (sons of Hasdrabal) together with Hanno, Gisco, and Himilco (sons of Hamilcar) played prominent parts in these activities.  However, specific details of their roles are lacking. By 450 BCE, Carthage had stopped paying tribute to the Libyans and a second major expansion into the Tunisian world took place. Lines of forts were built in Sardinia, securing Carthaginian control over the island coastline.

Tharros Sardinia

  The next king in line was Hanno II 480-440 BCE. Son of Hamilcar is thought to be the famous Hanno the Navigator who was a Carthaginian explorer of the fifth century BCE, best known for his naval exploration of the western coast of Africa. The only sources of his voyages are Greek geographical sea voyage notations.  His expedition  took place sometime between 460-425 BCE,

  Carthage dispatched Hanno at the head of a fleet of 60 ships to explore and colonize the northwestern coast of Africa. He sailed through the straits of Gibraltar, founded or repopulated seven colonies along the African coast of what is now Morocco, and explored significantly farther along the Atlantic coast of the continent. Hanno encountered various indigenous peoples on his journey and met with a variety of welcomes.

A Carthaginian Trireme

  At the terminus of Hanno's voyage, the explorer found an island heavily populated with by what was described as hirsute and savage people. Attempts to capture the males failed, but three of the females were taken. These were so ferocious that they had to be killed, and their skins preserved for transport home to Carthage. The skins were deposited in the Temple of Tanit on Hanno’s return and, according to Pliny the Elder. The interpreters traveling with Hanno called the people gorillae, and when European explorers first encountered gorillas in the 19th century, they gave this name to the apes they encountered on the assumption that they were the “people” Hanno described.

Pliny the Elder and Arrain, the latter mentioning it at the end of his Anabasis of Alexander VIII (Indica) goes thus, in his account:

  “Moreover, Hanno the Libyan started out from Carthage and passed the Pillars of Heracles and sailed into the outer Ocean, with Libya on his port side, and he sailed on towards the east, five-and-thirty days all told. But when at last he turned southward, he fell in with every sort of difficulty, want of water, blazing heat, and fiery streams running into the sea.”

Brian H. Warrington in his Book "Carthage" suggests,

  "This report was the object of criticism by some ancient writers, including the Pliny the Elder, and in modern times a whole literature of scholarship has grown up around it. The account is incoherent and at times certainly incorrect, and attempts to identify the various places mentioned based on the sailing directions and distances almost all fail. Some scholars resort to textual emendations, justified in some cases; but it is probable that what we have before us is a report deliberately edited so that the competitors of Carthage could not identify the places. From everything, we know about Carthaginian practice- their resolute determination to keep all knowledge of and access to the western markets from the Greeks. It is incredible that they would have allowed the publication of an accurate description of the voyage for all to read. What we have is an official version of the real report made by Hanno that conceals or falsifies vital information while at the same time gratifying the pride of the Carthaginians in their achievements. The very purpose of the voyage, the consolidation of the route to the gold market, is not even mentioned."  Therefore, it was the valuable yellow metal that they were after and wanted no one to know about.  We know nothing else about Hanno II’s rule.

Hanno’s Probable Route

  Himilco I (of Sicily) 460-410 BCE ruled after Hanno II.  Himilco I (Phoenician Chimilkât) was another Carthaginian navigator and explorer. He lived during the height of Carthaginian power in the 5th century BCE. His expedition took place in about 450 BC. Himilco, Carthaginian explorer, the first Mediterranean sailor known to have reached the northwestern shores of Europe wrote a story about his adventures, which is now lost. Two Roman authors quote it, however, and we are therefore able to reconstruct some of his travels. The name Himilco is Latin; it renders his Phoenician name Chimilkât, which means 'my brother is milkât' -but it is unclear to us what a milkât is.   The oldest reference to Himilco's voyage is a brief mention in Natural History (2.169a) by the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder. Himilco was quoted three times by Rufus Festus Avienus, who wrote Ora Maritima, a poetical account of the geography in the 4th century AD.  We know next to nothing of Himilco himself.  Himilco sailed north along the Atlantic coast of present-day Spain, Portugal, England, and France. He reached northwestern France, the territory of the Oestrimini tribe living in Portugal probably to trade for tin to be used for making bronze and for other precious metals, the voyages of the Carthaginian Himilco takes note of the islands of Albion (the White Cliffs of Dover) and Ierne (may refer to Ireland). 

The White Cliffs of Dover

  Avienus asserts that the outward journey to the Oestriminis took the Carthaginians four months. Himilco described his journeys as quite harrowing, repeatedly reporting sea monsters and live seaweed, likely in order to deter Greek rivals from competing on their new trade routes. Carthaginian accounts of sea monsters became one source of the myths made to discourage others from sailing in the Atlantic.  

Probable Route of Himilco

  Hannibal I (nickname Mago) was a grandson of Hamilcar Mago (Mago I).  He predates the more famous Carthaginian general Hannibal by about 200 years. By 410 BCE, Carthage had conquered much of modern day Tunisia, strengthened and founded new colonies in North Africa, and had sponsored Mago Barca's journey across the Sahara Desert. Although, in that year, the Iberian colonies seceded — cutting off Carthage's major supply of silver and copper. Hannibal 1 (Mago) ruled from 440-406 BCE.  He was shofet (judge) of Carthage in 410 BCE and in 409 BCE commanded a Carthaginian army sent to Sicily in response to a request from the city of Segesta.

Greek Temple in Segesta

  Segesta was one the major cities of the Elymias people an indigenous people of Sicily.  The other major cities of the Elymias were Eryx and Intello. The city was located on the northeastern tip of Sicily.  The following battle caused the Second Sicilian War.  Hannibal I (Mago) took a small force to Segesta.  In the Battle of Selinus, he successfully took the Greek city of Selinus and then Himera before Syracuse could intervene effectively. In the process of this conquest, it is believed that he killed some 3,000 prisoners of war, reportedly as revenge for the defeat his grandfather suffered in the Battle of Himera 70 years before. The city of Himera was destroyed as well. He did not attack Syracuse or Akragas, but departed for Africa with the spoils of war, and a three-year lull fell in Sicily. 

Battle of Himera 409 BCE

  In 406 BCE, Hannibal I (Mago) died in a plague that broke out during the siege of Agrigento.  Himilco II 406-396 BCE became the next king in line.  Himilco II was also a member of the Magonid Dynasty, a Carthaginian family of hereditary generals, and had command over the Carthaginian forces between 406 and 397 BCE. He is mainly known for his war in Sicily against Dionysius I of Syracuse. The Magonid Family of Carthage played a central role between 550 – 340 BCE in the political and military affairs of the Carthaginian Empire. Himilco II came to prominence after being selected deputy of his cousin Hannibal I (Mago) in 406 BCE for the Carthaginian expedition to Sicily.  Nothing is known about the early life of Himilco II.  The power of the position of “King” was diminished after the defeat of his grandfather Hamilcar Mago at Himera in 480 BCE.  

  With the rise of the council Hundred and Four came the power to try to crucify Carthaginian commanders who failed. The Magonid family continued to be active in Carthaginian foreign affairs while Himilco II was alive.  Himilco II’s father was probably Hanno the Navigator.  His family also was active in expanding the Carthaginian domain in Africa and Sardinia and ending the payment of tribute to the Libyans.

  In retaliation, the Greeks raided Punic-Sicilian possessions in Sicily in 406 BCE.  Hannibal Gisco was asked by the Carthaginian Senate to command the Carthaginian expedition to Sicily in 406 BCE to punish Hermocrates for raiding Carthaginian possessions around Motya and Panormus, possibly with the intention of subjugating all of Sicily. Hannibal initially refused pleading old age but accepted when the Carthaginian Senate elected Himilco II as his deputy (cf. Diodorus Siculus).  Hannibal Gisco led 60,000 soldiers and 1000 transports, escorted by 120 triremes to Sicily, where Akragas and Syracuse had gathered soldiers from Sicily and Italy to oppose the Carthaginians. 

Cut Away of a Trireme (which had three sets of oars -hence the prefix Tri-)

  Hannibal laid siege to Akragas, the wealthiest city in Sicily in the spring of 406 BCE by “straddling” the city with two camps, while the Carthaginian fleet was based at Motya. The main Carthaginian army was in the western camp while the eastern one housed the Iberian and Campanian mercenaries. Akragas could field 10,000 hoplites (Hoplites were citizen-soldiers of Ancient Greek city-states who were primarily armed with spears and shields) and some cavalry and had 1,500 crack mercenaries under the Spartan Dexippus in the city.  When the initial Carthaginian assault on the city gate nearest to the main Carthaginian camp with two siege towers failed, Hannibal Gisco began to build siege ramps to assault the city from several directions. However, a plague swept through the Carthaginian army and Hannibal Gisco perished with many of his soldiers. Himilco II (Diodorus, XIV, p41) was elected as the commander (he was his deputy anyway) of the Carthaginian force. The Carthaginians had demolished tombs to get materials for the siege ramps, and Punic soldiers believed that divine anger had caused the plague.

  Himilco II’s first challenge was to tackle the plague. Left unchecked, the plague would have decimated the Carthaginians, and if Himilco II had retreated, the Greeks might have carried the war into Punic territories on Sicily. Himilco II was in no position to force an advantageous truce – and defeated generals were crucified in Carthage if they failed in war.  Himilco II chose to sacrifice some animals to the sea and sacrificed a human child (not known if it was his own) to a god Greeks associated with Kronos. It is unknown if the Carthaginians had taken any practical measures to combat the plague, but the plague stopped.   Himilco II then resumed the ramp building and dammed the Hypsas River to gain better access to the city.  Before he could take a crack at Akragas, Daphaenus of Syracuse arrived with 35,000 Sicilian and Italian Greek soldiers. Himilco kept a part of his army in the main camp to watch Akragas while the mercenaries marched east to fight the Greeks. Daphaenus defeated the mercenaries, drove the survivors to the main camp, and occupied the eastern camp, lifting the siege. Himilco II chose not to offer battle to the victorious Greeks, but he did not abandon his position either.  The Carthaginians were dependent on supplies brought overland from Western Sicily and foraging. There were no natural harbors near Akragas to house a large supply fleet.  Daphaenus began to harass the Carthaginians using peltasts (Greek light infantry or skirmishers) and cavalry from Akragas and soon the Carthaginians faced a food shortage as less and less supplies got through – while morale plummeted, the mercenaries came close to mutiny as winter approached.  

   Himilco II temporarily placated the unruly mercenaries by bribing them with the gold and silver tableware of Carthaginian officers, thus avoiding his army imploding from within. He still needed to improve his supply situation – and he seized on opportune information to achieve this.  The Greeks were using grain ships escorted by 30 triremes to supply Akragas and their army, and had become lax due to the absence of the Carthaginian navy in the vicinity. Just prior to the winter, the Carthaginians managed to learn of the approach of one such convoy beforehand. Himilco II then summoned 40 triremes from Motya and Panormus, which sailed up during the night and remained hidden from Greek scouts, then surprised the Greek flotilla at dawn as it sailed up without expecting any trouble; they sank eight Greek triremes and captured the entire supply flotilla. (Edward A. Freeman, History of Sicily) The Carthaginians now had food to last for several months and their morale improved. 

 The Greeks now faced the same problem – there was not enough food stocked at Akragas to feed both the population and the army until further supplies could be accumulated – and organizing that would take time because of the winter season. (cf. Diodorus Siculus) Mistrust between Greeks from various quarters now burst open when this news became public – thus reducing their ability to make a joint decision regarding continuing the conflict. Himilco II further aggravated the situation by bribing some Campanian mercenaries – who deserted to him. Rumors circulated that Himilco II had also bribed the Spartan Dexippus, leading 1,500 mercenaries. The tension now caused the Greek army to fall apart. Italian Greeks quit Akragas rather than face starvation, and soon other Greeks contingents and the whole population marched east to Gela. Himilco II took possession of the city, which was sacked.  Then Carthaginian army wintered in that city.

  In the following spring, Himilco II leveled Akragas and marched east to Gela. He did not circumvent the city with siege walls or “straddle” it by building several camps, but chose to encamp to the west of the city and carry it through assault that was unsuccessful.   Dionysius soon arrived with a relief force consisting of 30,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry and 50 triremes and camped to the east of the city (Brian Caven, Dionysius I: Warlord of Sicily) Himilco II chose to await developments in his camp and did not offer battle.

  Following the script used at Akragas, Dionysius harassed Carthaginian supply columns for 3 weeks with light troops. Nevertheless, some of the Greek leaders under him had other ideas and forced him to attack the Carthaginians. The Greeks then launched a three-pronged attack on the Carthaginian camp. The imaginative battle plan, if implemented properly, might have trapped the Carthaginians.  However, due to lack of coordination by Greek units it allowed the Carthaginians to destroy each of the three Greek units one at a time.  Dionysus then abandoned Gela, fell back to Camarina, and then left Camarina for Syracuse, while Himilco II’s forces sacked both the cities as the Carthaginians marched towards Syracuse

Ruins of Camarina 

  Himilco II did not press the pursuit but marched on Syracuse slowly. He thus missed an opportunity to destroy the forces still loyal to Dionysius.  Dionysius was left adrift between the Carthaginian army and a hostile Syracuse. However, he took speedy action and managed to recapture Syracuse. Himilco and the Carthaginians encamped near Syracuse but made no attempt to besiege the city (cf. Diodorus Siculus).  After a few weeks, Himilco sent a herald with a peace offer. It is suspected that a plague had broken out in the Carthaginian camp, causing the Carthaginians to request a truce. During the whole campaign, Himilco had lost more than half his army to the plague. In 405 BCE, a treaty was concluded: The treaty left Carthaginians supreme in Sicily with Syracuse isolated and Dionysius under suspicion of being a Carthaginian collaborator. 

The main conditions of the treaty were:

• Carthage keeps full control on the Phoenician cities in Sicily. Elymian and Sikan cities 

are in Carthaginian “Sphere of Influence”. 

• Greeks are allowed to return to Selinus, Akragas, Camarina and Gela. These cities, including the new city of Therma, would pay tribute to Carthage. Gela and Camarina were forbidden to repair their walls. 

• The cities of the Sicels and Messina were to remain free of Carthaginian and Syracusan 

influence, as was Leontini. This isolated Syracuse from the rest of Sicily.

Dionysius ruled for 38 years and engaged in four wars against Carthage with varying results

  Himilco returned to Carthage in disgrace. He was very badly received; he eventually committed suicide by starving himself. (After his death, the power of the “kings” was severely curtailed. The Power of the oligarchy, ruling through the “Council of Elders” and the newly created “Tribunal of 104,” correspondingly increased) (Lancel, Serge, Carthage A History, p 114).  The plague brought back from the war in Sicily ravaged Carthage to a certain extent, it did not spread everywhere, as one would expect.  However, at the same time Carthage was ravaged by a sever rebellion in Africa and Sardinia.
    Himilco II was succeeded by his relative Mago II in 396 BC.  Mago II was Shofet of Carthage from 396 to 375 BCE, and was a member of the Magonid dynasty. He became Shofet after the suicide of Himilco II in 396 BCE.  His reign started during the wars with the Greeks of Sicily, who under the leadership of Dionysius I of Syracuse had stalemated his predecessor and had now consolidated his power. He quelled a rebellion in Libya, and made peace with Syracuse at the expense of his Sicilian allies the Sicels.  
  The next clash took place in 393 BCE.  Dionysius defeated Mago II in an attempt to aid the Sicels under attack from Syracuse.  Carthage reinforced Mago II in 392 BCE. However, before he could engage the forces of Dionysius the Sicels switched sides.  Dionysius outmaneuvered the Carthaginian army, and peace soon followed, which allowed Carthage to retain her domain in Sicily while allowing Syracuse a free hand against the Sicels.

Temple to Minerva in Ancient Syracuse

  The treaty with Carthage lasted nine years.  After 390 BCE, Dionysius led an expedition against Rhegium and other Greek cities of southern Italy, and with the aid of the Lucanians, he devastated the territories of Thurii, Croton, and Locri. By the time, Rhegium fell (386 BCE); Dionysius had become the chief power in Greek Italy. He sent colonists to Illyria and possibly to northeast Italy. Although the Athenian writer Isocrates hailed him as a champion of Hellenism, the brutality of Dionysius’ conquests made him unpopular in Greece, and his literary pretensions were deplored. When he sent a splendid embassy to the Olympic festival of 388 BCE, a crowd pillaged the tents of his envoys.  Dionysius’ third war with Carthage (383–c. 375 BCE) proved just as disastrous. He suffered a crushing defeat at Cronium and had to pay an indemnity of 1,000 talents and cede the territory west of the Halycus River. Nevertheless, he was still engaged in yet another conflict with the Carthage at the time of his death.  Reportedly in 348 BCE Carthage made another treaty with Rome.   

  Carthaginian holdings west of the Halycus River remained secure. Hanno, a wealthy aristocrat, was in command in Sicily, and he and his family played a leading role in the politics of Carthage for the next fifty years. Carthage had entered into an alliance with the Etruscans, while Tarentum and Syracuse concluded a similar treaty.

    Carthage and Rome (by now a significant power in central Italy) concluded a second treaty in 348 BCE (Lazanby, J.F, The First Punic War, pp 31-33).  Romans could to trade with Sicily, but not to settle there, and Iberia, Sardinia, were off limits to Roman exploration, trade and settlement activities. The  Romans were to hand over any settlements there that they captured to Carthage.  Carthaginians pledged to be friendly with the Latins, and return to Rome cities captured in Latium (the Latin League was incorporated into the Roman Republic in 338 BCE).

  Hanno III 367?-340 BCE was the last ruler of the Magonid Dynasty. There were three leaders of ancient Carthage known as Hanno the Great, according to two historians (the Picards). These figures they call for convenience: Hanno I the Great, Hanno II the Great, and Hanno III the Great.  According to another historian (Warmington), there were three ancients of Carthage called Hanno "given the same  nickname", that is the Great, but he conjectures that it was a family nickname or a term not well understood by the ancient Greek or Roman writers.  The one already referred to here as "Hanno II the Great" he (Warmington) discusses but calls him simply "Hanno". Of course, it is an anomaly for multiple people to be called the same name.  In all, there were many historical figures named Hanno in ancient Carthage.  Nevertheless, here we are specifically talking about the last king of the Magonid Dynasty named Hanno.  Hanno the Great (III) was a politician and military leader of the 4th century BCE.  His title, according to Justin, was princeps Carthaginiensium. More likely, that the title signifies first among equals, rather than being a title of nobility or royalty.  His rival Suniatus was called the potentissimus Poenorum, or “the most powerful of the Carthaginians”, in the year 368 BCE. Several years later Suniatus was accused of high treason (for correspondence with Syracuse) and probably executed.  In 367, BCE Hanno (III) the Great commanded a fleet of 200 ships that won a decisive naval victory over the Greeks of Sicily. His victory effectively blocked the plans of Dionysius I of Syracuse to attack Lilybaeum, a city allied to Carthage in western Sicily. 

  With Sicily secure, Hanno III launched campaigns into Libya, Spain, and Mauritania.  From his successes he was given the title “the Great” (Magnus) along with great wealth.  Hamilcar and Gisco, his sons, served with distinction in these campaigns.  However, Hanno III aimed to obtain total power and planned to overthrow the “Council of Elders.” His scheme failed, leading to his execution along with and his family (Diodorus, XVI, 8), but his two sons were spared.